Mellon Scholars Summer Program – Subject Guides

Becoming Liberian: The Colonization of and Kinship Between African Americans and Liberians

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Overview:

For this summer’s Mellon Scholars program, I chose to research the connection and kinship between Black Americans and Liberians and the ways this standing relationship came to be. When starting my research, I wanted to center the community building between these two communities in the 20th century, following the two Liberian Civil Wars (1996-1998 and 1999-2003) that brought many Liberians back to Philadelphia for refuge but after exploring the archival collection at the Library company, I got to uncover how much of a hand Black Americans had in building up Liberia as a colony. As enslaved people gradually began to flee slavery or be freed from slavery, they immediately started planning what the most efficient next steps were for them and their communities. In 1821 the American Colonization Society was founded by Robert Finley after Paul Cuffee originally proposed and took the first voyage of free Black people to Freetown, Sierra Leone in 1816. Following his death, the ACS gained traction and partnered with the Pennsylvania Colonization Society and the Young Men’s Colonization Society to popularize the colonization movement in sending free Black people back to Liberia as an alternative to emancipation in the United States.

About the Author:

Kris Cheaye is a graduating senior at Smith College, pursuing both Africana studies and Neuroscience. Kris is a research assistant in Smith College Mind in Development lab where they research ways to make neuroimaging accessible for POC and people with course/curly hair. They are passionate about Black history across the Diaspora, land stewardship, and community.

Keywords

Contributors:

  1. Robert Finley
  2. American Colonization Society
  3. Pennsylvania Colonization society
  4. John H.B. Latrobe
  5. Robert Finley
  6. Anti-Slavery Society

Subject Headings:

  1. Palmas, Cape (Liberia)
  2. Liberia–Civilization–American influences
  3. Liberia–History
  4. African Americans–Liberia
  5. Liberia–History–To 1847
  6. Education–Liberia
  7. Capes (Coasts)–Liberia
  8. African Americans–Colonization–Liberia
  9. Liberia–History–1847-1944
  10. Liberia–Social conditions

Access Terms:

  1. Anti-slavery literature
  2. Constitutions
  3. Emigrant guides
  4. Guides, settlers’
  5. Reference works
Annotated Bibliography

Resources at LCP:

Liberia Herald. Monrovia, Liberia: Colonial Press.
“Liberia Herald” was the first newspaper that was published in Liberia, originally founded by Charles L. Force. He died shortly after the first issue was published. John Brown Russwurm who initially founded the first African American Newspaper in New York ‘Freedom’s Journal’ later took over the Liberia Herald after emigrating to Liberia. “We are in hopes, through our columns to bring light to many facts relative to the slave trade. It is the general opinion in the United States and Europe, that it has nearly ceased: but can an American or a European reside in Cape Messurado or Liberia, and witness the daily passage of the slavers up and down the coast.” This paper was used to really highlight and bring awareness to life in Liberia, and display how radical it was for this movement to take place before Slavery really officially abolished. The paper had various columns that included editor’s notes, advertisements, poetry, deaths, and miscellany.

Information about going to Liberia : Things which every emigrant to Liberia ought to know. Common objections to going to Liberia answered. Reply to certain cavilings against colonization. American Colonization Society. Information about going to Liberia. Washington: C. Alexander, printer. 1848.

This archival object is a pamphlet created by the American Colonization Society for the purpose of both educating Black Americans on what life looked like after emigrating to Liberia and also combating criticism against the colonization movement. It also further explains the history of Liberia and why it was chosen as the land to send Black people to. This pamphlet is structured similar to a frequently asked questions forum, where questions about schooling, employment, and travel are asked about and answered in short and concise ways.

The Recognition of the Republic of Liberia by the Government of the United States.  Massachusetts Colonization Society. The recognition of the republic of Liberia by the government of the United States. [United States: s.n.]. 1862.

This contains a synopsis of a meeting held on May 31st, 1862 for the Massachusetts Colonization Society with both President Lincoln and Senator Sumner present for the purpose of recognizing the Republic of Liberia and its benefits. Hon B. C. Clark made some remarks about the former president’s apprehensions of the colonizations in both Liberia and Haiti’s recognition. He tastefully shows gratitude to the government officials presence and acknowledges that this emigration is equally beneficial for both the Black and white race.

New Colony at Bassa Cove : The committee appointed by the Young Men’s Colonization Society of Pennsylvania, to superintend the sailing of their first expedition, respectfully report. Young Men’s Colonization Society of Pennsylvania. New Colony at Bassa Cove. [Philadelphia: s.n. 1834.

This pamphlet contains reports from a branch of The Colonization Society known as The Young Men’s Colonization Society of Pennsylvania first Voyage of people to Bassa Cove (Liberia). “Your committee cannot close this report without advertising with gratitude to the signal success which has hitherto been graciously permitted to attend every step of the Society, mingled with humble trust that our institution, based on the principles of benevolence and religion, will continue to enjoy the divine blessing” (1) The organization speaks about the details of all the meticulous planning that went into completing this journey and writes with much gratitude around having the capability and necessary resources through God and missionary work which allowed for this to take place.

Debate at the Lane Seminary, Cincinnati. : Speech of James A. Thome, of Kentucky, delivered at the annual meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society, May 6, 1834. Letter of the Rev. Dr. Samuel H. Cox, against the American Colonization Society. American Anti-Slavery Society, Lane Theological Seminary and Garrison & Knapp. Debate at the Lane Seminary, Cincinnati. Boston: Published by Garrison & Knapp, no. 11, Merchants’ Hall. 1834.

This pamphlet contains a synopsis of a meeting with the American Anti-Slavery Society on May 6, 1834 centering a debate about the justness of The Colonization Movement. Through this debate, several questions were brought to light around which plans had Free Black best interest. “Most colonizationists who expressed any opinion on the subject, declared their ignorance of the doctrines and measures of the society until this debate” (3) This debate was significant due to it starting the shift in thinking about the true essence of the colonization movement and what it actually means to send free Black people back to Africa as a remedy to slavery.

Bibliography of the Negro in Africa and America. Work, Monroe Nathan. The H. W. Wilson Company, 1928.

This bibliography of Black history in both Africa and America acts as a useful timeline, precisely outlining things that have taken place through history in alphabetical order. Monroe Nathan, the author, created this bibliography to have a cohesive archival tool to keep track of events from the past. Throughout my personal research, this book allowed me to place things happening that were connected to Liberia in a timeline and gain a better scope of things.

The Negro Almanac: A Reference Work on the African American. Ploski, Harry A., and James D. Williams. Gale Research Inc, 1989.
This reference book on African American history is used to hold brief history of historical Black events and histories. The authors created this reference book to expose the reader to events and allow for them to explore deeper in the archive after \wards. In this project, this book allowed me to look at the more political side of Liberia and the ways that affected the world view on the country.

Burrowes, Carl Patrick. Press Freedom in Liberia, 1830-1970: The Impact of Modernity, Ethnicity and Power Imbalances on Government-Press Relations. 1994.

This resource from Temple’s archive uses data from Liberia in the years 1830-1847 to track correlations between legal restrictions and lack of economic development. Burrowes was interested in the ways earlier Black settlers in Liberia freedom within the press shaped the development (or lack thereof) of the country. This resource aligns with other archival objects in my list centering newspaper columns, pamphlets, and other kinds of media that shaped the country and the ways it shows up in various archives today.

Chester, Thomas Morris, and Maxwell Whiteman. Negro Self-Respect and Pride of Race : Speech of T. Morris Chester, Esq., of Liberia, Delivered at the Twenty-Ninth Anniversary of the Philadelphia Library Company, December 9, 1862. Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1970.
This book centers the Constitution of the American Society of free people color in 1831 and discussions on the formation of colored regiments, memorial to the House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and minutes and proceedings of the first annual meeting of the American Moral Reform Society in 1837. This speech speaks about the agency Black people gained from planning and pursuing plans of moving away from the US after slavery. This aligns with my research because it follows the pattern of Black people seeking freedom outside the traditional bounds.

Colonization and Abolition Considered: Or, Some Remarks on the Sixteenth Annual Report of the American Colonization Society. 1833.

The pamphlet responds to the American Colonization Society’s 16th Annual Report. William Lloyd Garrison, a critic of the ACS denounced colonization as a proslavery mechanism designed to remove free Black people from the US and protect slavery. This aligns with my project because it shows the contrasting ideologies of the colonization movement and different ways of considering freedom.

Local Resources:

Muslim Charm (Fort Shirley, Huntingdon County, PA, c.a. 1760). Copper Charm. Museum of the American Revolution.

This charm, which may have belonged to an enslaved African American, is engraved with the Islamic symbol, the Shahada. Many enslaved Africans brought Islamic faith with them, though both White and Black Christian missionaries sought to convert them to Christianity.

Frederick H. Talbot, “Partners in Mission” (1974). Record Slipcover. Courtesy of the Richard Allen Museum.

This record was produced by the 16th District of the AME, which contains the Caribbean and South America. The slipcover calls the Afro-diasporic people of the 16th AME District “the sons and daughters of Richard Allen” and describes them as partners in mission. Missionary efforts in the AME led to large international branches of the independent Black denomination.

Ethel H. McNair, The Reflector: The First Episcopal District Women’s Missionary Society Newsletter (July 31, 1979). Courtesy of the Richard Allen Museum.

A local branch of the AME’s Women’s Missionary Society produced this newsletter in 1979, which outlined the AME Women’s Missionary Society’s present work and continued efforts in global missionary work. This document shows the enduring focus on international missionary work among independent Black churches.

Reference Books:

Newman, Richard S and James Mueller. Antislavery and abolition in Philadelphia: Emancipation and the Long Struggle for Racial Justice in the City of Brotherly Love. Louisiana State University Press, 2011.

Antislavery and Abolition in Philadelphia explores the cultural, political, and religious forces shaping the city’s long struggle against racial injustice. Through nine scholarly essays, it traces the movement’s evolution from marginalization in the colonial era to prominence during the Civil War, highlighting Philadelphia’s central role in antislavery activism.

Newman, Richard S. Freedom’s Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers. New York University Press, 2008.

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Newman situates Richard Allen’s evolving life within his era, tracing his journey from early antislavery activism and interracial ideals to later advocacy for Black democracy and emigration. Highlighting his influence on reform, racial thought, and Black resistance, the book argues for Allen’s place among the United States’ most important founding figures.

Mellon Scholars 2026: Hanifa SavageMellon Scholars 2026: Ryan Melinn